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Russian History Discussion and
Essay Questions
- The Underground Man tells us
the rank at which he left government service. Discuss this detail
in the context of the broad impact of peter the Great’s
instituting the famous Table of Ranks, Peter’s social policies and
program, and the evolution of St. Petersburg as “the most
intentional of cities”.
“I am a collegiate
assessor. I was in the
service that I might have
something to eat (and
solely for that reason), and when last year a distant
relation left me six
thousand roubles in his will I immediately retired
from the service and
settled down in my corner.”
Peter the Great – his program was
secularization, modernization, and
westernization
Secularization: Peter abolished
the patriarchate, and replaced it with the holy synod. He also
changed the way letters are formed, which led to a more efficient
way of writing, and printing. Religious books were still printed in
the old style, whereas secular books adapted the new style, and
became more widespread. Changed the calendar system to start in
January. Disallowed the wearing of beards, or else you would be
taxed. Beards of course had a religious significance.
Westernization: Peter changed his
own clothing to western style.
Founded St. Petersburg in 1703 as
a bulwark to the Swedes in the northern war, intended as the window
to Europe. St. Petersburg has a very western look and feel to it.
Table of Ranks – defined what your formal rank was, what clothing
you were to wear, how many serfs you had. The only way to get ahead
was by taking exams to prove competence. Clearly the table of ranks
is a system of merit advancement (meritocracy), which is truly a
fundamental shift from the old to a new more effective and efficient
government bureaucracy.
Service in infantry was a ticket to freedom. The army, navy,
church, and state bureaucracy all had ranks, which thus placed an
importance on education.
Modernization: Peter eliminated
prikazy, and established a much smaller number of ministries.
Created a modern Russian Navy. Great northern war 1704-1721, right
after the founding of St. Petersburg, could be seen as a war for
access to the Northern Seas, and more importantly to the west.
Intentional city: intentionally
founded – what are the consequences of such a city? Western name, as
oppose to Moscow, which is a medieval city. Peter founds the city to
be his capital, but development and building of the city was done
after Peter as well.
A yearly quote of 40,000 peasants
was required to be sent to St. Petersburg to build the city. Peter
disallowed the building of stone buildings everywhere in Russia
except St. Petersburg, in order to force all of Russia’s stonemasons
to come to St. Petersburg.
Site of the Decembrist uprising.
Alexander II was assassinated in
St. Petersburg. On the very spot where he was killed, the Church of
the Savior on Blood was built. This church itself, is somewhat of a
contradiction. It’s architecture and design is not in accordance
with the city of St. Petersburg, but rather very typical of Moscow.
With the unmistakable look of Moscow’s St. Basil, the giant Church
of the Savior on Blood stands in the middle of St. Petersburg.
- A. S. Pushkin’s Bronze Horseman
and F. M. Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground are both profoundly
“Petersburg” narratives. In what ways? In what ways? Be specific,
using quotations from your source texts and direct comparisons and
contrasts between the two texts.
Both the Bronze Horseman, and
Notes from Underground are profoundly Petersburg narratives, in the
sense that they embody the artificiality and rationalism of the city
itself.
ARTIFICIALITY:
The idea of
artificiality of St. Petersburg plays a critical role in both Notes
from Underground and Bronze Horseman.
The first thing we hear from the
author of Notes from the Underground, is that “The author of
the diary and the diary itself are, of course, imaginary.” The
contradiction between real and imaginary is at once apparent, since
how could the reader be reading something that does not exist? The
opening of Bronze Horseman mirrors this contradiction, with Peter
the Great imagining St. Petersburg before it is built. St.
Petersburg itself changes from dream to reality in such a small time
frame that has never been seen. Unlike other European cities that
grow gradually over time, St. Petersburg was rather forced, which
gives it an air of artificiality.
people come to St.
Petersburg to improve their social status (artificial construct), in
particular both Yevgeny and the underground man do so.
“Our hero--somewhere--served the
State”
and dreamed that through “pain
and toil might some day hope to gain an honored, free, assured
position”
Nature fights against all
things artificial:
“A siege! the wicked waves,
attacking”
“ Some shifted by the seas;
and scattered
Are bodies, flung as bodies lie
On battlefields.
“
Nature is waging war on the
artificial city. It seems very fitting that the artificial and the
natural fight in this fashion.
Alexander I says "No czar, 'tis
sure, is master
Over God's elements!"
The implication here, of course,
is that not even Peter, with his artificial city can triumph over
nature, and the natural course of action.
“Two sentry lions stood at guard
Like living
things”
These two lions that guard the
ministry of war building are not living things, and are artificial.
“He”, “Him”, and “Image” are
capitalized, as if it make Peter the Great more Godlike. Yet at the
same time he is an artificial, or a false God.
“Parasha--and his dream was she!
His dream--or was it but a
vision,
All that he saw? Was life also
An idle dream which in derision
Fate sends to mock us here
below?”
A dream is an artificial
construct of the mind. The inability to differentiate between the
real and fake only highlights the theme of nature versus the
artificial.
“By fears that clamored inwardly.
So, dragging out his days,
ill-fated,
He seemed like something
miscreated,
No beast, nor yet of human
birth”
This natural disaster incident
robs Yevgeny of his humanity!
“A host of hideous thoughts
attacked him,
A kind of nightmare rent and
racked him,
And on he wandered
silently;”
Dream becomes a nightmare, and
Yevgeny becomes consistently described as being crazy and mad, but
is it not the fault of his circumstances, rather than a natural
inclination? Just like Yevgeny’s downfall is caused by St.
Petersburg, the underground man experiences a similar demise.
“in reality I never
could become spiteful” says the underground man, however in reality,
all of his actions are out of spite, and he truly enjoys this
feeling of spite.
The Crystal palace allows
mathematical formulas to determine everything. But he compares it to
a chicken coop in the rain. It just gives physical essentials for
life. After all it isn’t always raining. The Underground man says
socialism, science, and materialism aren’t taking everything into
account. On the other hand, he doesn’t offer any positive
alternative, he just points out the flaws.
Our caprice “in
reality... preserves for us what is most precious and most
important—that is, our personality, our individuality”.
“I could never stand
more than three months of dreaming at a time without feeling an
irresistible desire to plunge into society”.
“The most striking
reality they accepted with fantastic stupidity and even at that time
were accustomed to respect success”
“since I had
succeeded in so corrupting myself, since I was so out of touch with
“real life””.
“Real life oppressed
me with its novelty so much that I could hardly breathe”
The atmosphere of
“real”, which is really just the false front in St. Petersburg is so
stifling, that the underground man has trouble staying alive!
RATIONALISM:
St. Petersburg was constructed in
a manner that was considered highly rational, as the buildings,
avenues, streets were well planned. Peter the great even brought in
German engineers to help in the process. It is no mistake that
Dostoevsky calls St Petersburg “the most intentional of cities”. St.
Petersburg was intended as a window to Europe by Peter the Great,
but at what cost? During Peter’s time, A yearly quote of 40,000
peasants was required to be sent to St. Petersburg in order to build
the city. Moreover, the harsh climate was not very befitting in the
construction of what would become the capital of Russia. The “ugly
weather” described in the Bronze Horseman is only echoed in Notes
from Underground with the adjective “disgusting”, describing of
course the St. Petersburg weather. As if the climate wasn’t bad
enough, the socio-political atmosphere is even more oppressive. The
underground man attacks the very concept of rationalism which comes
in the rising form of socialism. He argues that man is irrational,
and wants the
“INDEPENDENT choice, whatever that independence may
cost”. In this respect, the
underground man rails against socialism, whose goal is to give
everyone the means of being happy. In the 1840’s the idea that you
could pick a downtrodden person and help them came into being. The
underground man parallels the idea of emancipating the serfs, when
he follows the cliché of helping Liza escape the shackles of
prostitution. While the underground man maintains control of the
situation, he acts in a way that is against his self interest, which
clearly shows his own irrationalism when he treats Liza hideously
during her visit. The idea of rationalism is also what ends up
killing directly and indirectly both Yevgeny and the underground
man. The Underground man literally goes further and further
underground, a symbolic death, while Yevgeny dies and is buried out
of pity.
- In the works of literature and
painting studied in our course, how have women been depicted? In
the cultural history we have examined, how has the sponsorship and
artistic achievment of women played an important
role?
During the reign of Peter the
Great, women’s participation in society was improved, at least in
the upper classes. Arranged marriages were officially
forbidden.
In 18th and
19th century Russian painting, women generally have been
depicted as power and proud women, while women in the concurrent
literature can be seen as downtrodden, and modest at
best.
Literature:
Liza is a strumpet from Riga, who
comes to St. Petersburg.
"Besides, a man is no
example
for a woman. It's a different thing. I may degrade and defile
myself, but I
am not anyone's
slave. I come and go,
and that's an end of it.
I shake it off,
and I am a different
man. But you are a
slave from the start.
Yes, a slave!
You give up
everything, your whole freedom. If you want to break
your
chains afterwards,
you won't be able to; you will be more and more fast in
the snares. It is an accursed
bondage.
The underground man calls Liza “a
slave from the start” and that she “gives up everything”, her “whole
freedom”. The underground man might not just be talking about one
individual woman, but women in general. Perhaps the role of every
women is prostitution in one form or another. Liza herself says that
"Some [fathers] are glad to sell their daughters, rather than
marrying them honourably."
Parasha lives in “a frail old
house” with “a paintless fence”. Moreover, her very name evokes that
she is not of aristocratic origin. This does not stop Yevgeny, who
is of aristocratic origins, from fantasizing and dreaming of
marrying Parasha, despite her lowly origins. In a similar fashion
PROSKOVYA...
Art:
Boyarynya Morozova – by Vasily
Surikov is a painting of Lady Morozova, who was of one of the
richest and most powerful families in Russia. She communicated with
Avvakum, who led the main opposition of patriarch Nikon’s reforms.
She is also emblematic of the people who would become the old
believers. In Surikov’s painting, she is raising two fingers,
showing what the old believers considered to be the right way to
cross oneself. She was moved to a convent by the Tsar, then to a
prison, where she was put in a pit and left to starve to death. It
was the Tsar’s intent to humiliate her by sending her in chains
through the streets, however she sits up very proudly, which makes
her even more of a martyr.
In a similar fashion to Lady
Morozova,
Proskovya Nikolai Argunov painted
a portrait of Countess Praskovya Sheremeteva. The countess looks
majestic in this portrait, wearing a red shawl, a diamond ring
(given by emperor Pual), and a very large locket of the count, as if
to prove that she is in fact the countess. Born a serf. She learned
Italian and French, and spoke and wrote with fluency. Count Nikolai
Petrovich told her “today you are a peasant but tomorrow you will
become a lady!”. He felt it was “morally wrong not to marry
Praskovya, but his aristocratic pride would not allow him to do so”
(Natasha’s Dance). Nikolai eventually went against the social
conventions and married Proskovya. She died shortly after in 1803,
and very few people came to pay respects.
Not only were women pervasive
throughout Russian art and literature, but they also sponsored great
works of architecture and art.
Elizabeth
Late baroque period 1741-62 is
also known as “Elizabethan”
Tsarskoye Selo and Petersburg
Winter Palace were built by C. B. Rastrelli in the 1750s.
She indirectly founded Academy of
Fine Arts in St. Petersburg through Shuvalov. Wanted to establish
St. Petersburg as the true capital as oppose to Moscow, due to a
previous power struggle.
Catherine the Great – led a coup
d’etat against her husband Peter III, and her contributions and
sponsorship of art is largely based on the motivation to establish
her link with Peter the Great, even though not blood related. Was
called the englightened despot. Carried on correspondence with
Voltaire and Diderot. Under Catherine, women began to be educated.
Catherine wrote more than 30 plays. Catherine “founded the
collection of paintings that forms the core of the reat Hermitage
collection in St. Petersburg”. Catherine got Falconet to build the
an equestrian statue of
Peter the Great in St. Petersburg. Catherine was eager to appear to
the people as the rightful heir to the Russian throne, despite not
having any connection with the bloodline. It is inscribed with
“Catherine the Second to Peter the First,
1782”
- Nineteenth-century Russian
painting is less widely appreciated than is the great Russian
literature of the 19th century. Discuss in detail one
or two examples of 19th-century Russian painting
discussed in our course, and explain how the specifically Russian
cultural-historical context illuminates the painting or paintings
you choose. Then consider the painting in the context of the
painter’s own background, development, and artistic achievment.
Vasily Surikov (1848-1916 )was
born into a family of Siberian Cossacks. focused on historical
Russian works. He visited countries: Germany, Italy, France,
Austria, and in particular was influenced by French impressionism.
Upon returning to Russia, Surikov painted Boyarynya Morozova. Other
great works: he Conquest of Siberia by Yermak, The Taking of a Snow
Fortress - Siberian game in which a horseman must jump over a snow
wall, defended by young people with twigs and whips., Morning of
Strelets’ Execution
Nikolai Argunov (1771-1829) –
from the Argunov family, which was known for being Sheremetev serf
artists. “The position of the creative serf was complicated and
ambiguous” (Natasha’s Dance). Serf artists lacked independence.
Received liberty in 1809, and was elected to the Imperial Academy of
arts.
- The reign of Nicholas I is
often described in negative terms, but some observers have thought
he gets an unfairly bad press, especially in view of the cultural
flowering that took place during his reign. What do you think
about this issue, and why? Give pros and cons, and be sure to
include details.
Polevoi (non noble intellectual)
in his journal Moscow Telegraph writes a bad review of the
obsequious History of the Russian State by Karamzin.
“the most sustained effort to
keep freedom of thought alive in the first years of the reign of
Nicholas I appeared to have come to nothing” (Saunders).
According to Herzen, in 1850,
“the thirst for instruction is taking hold of the entire new
generation” (Saunders). During the reign of Nicholas I, there was an
explosion in the numbers of students in the official educational
institutions. 62,000 in end of 18th century. 250,000 in
the 1830s. 450,000 by 1856, a year after Nicholas died.
CON: in 1834 only 1/208 was being
educated, 1/143 in 1856.
“Nicholas’s edict of 1827
[forbid] secondary schools and universities to educated serfs”
(Saunders).
Encouraging writers: copyright
law in 1828, prevented piracy. regime of Nicholas supported
idealogical exchanges, and founded and supported journals which
expressed the government’s point of view.
The inefficiency of the
censorship under Nicholas I, allowed works such as Gogol’s The
Government Inspector in 1836, and Dead Souls in
1842.
Under Nicholas I, the Westernizer
and Slavophile philosophies took shape. Progressives and
Reactionaries.
The Russian intelligentsia
planted the seeds in the 1830s and 1840s for what would become the
reforms of Alexander II
Nicholas I was not as
militaristic as many historians make him seem. Nicholas I was very
cautious, even more so than his advisors. During the war with Persia
and the Turks, it was clear that “peace rather than war had been
[Nicholas’s] goal throughout” (Saunders). Moreover, the advantages
of having the Ottoman empire are greater than the disadvantages, was
the guiding Russian opinion and policy.
Nationality, Orthodoxy, and
Autocracy – 1833, propagated by Uvarov, Nicholas’ minister of
education.
Russianization – enforcing
russian practices on people to whom they were totally alien.
instituted in Poland , when
Nicholas prompted the publication of history books arguing western
provinces are historically Russian, taking away noble status from
many Poles, forcing local administration to be conducted in Russian.
Ukrainian federalism was
suppressed by forcing the best known activists to military service.
“If a few Ukrainians suffered as
individuals at the hands of the Nicholaevan regime, Jews, like
Poles, suffered collectively” (Saunders).
In accordance with his
Russianization policy, Jews were now obliged to serve in the
military, but the recruitment age was set to 12 years instead of the
usual 20.
In the 1830s a conflict arose
between Egypt and Turkey, in which Russia helped Turkey just to
maintain the status quo. 1833, Russian and Turks sign the Treaty of
Unkiar-Skelessi, in which Russians promised Turks assistance in
return for the closure of the Dardenelles. The British believed this
was an act of aggression, when in fact it was just a defensive
measure.
Ironically, thanks to the
Petrashevskii circle, Dostoevsky was exiled, where he “underwent a
spiritual transformation in Siberia which turned him into the
greatest of nineteenth-century writers” (Saunders).
Crimean War: arose over who gets
the right to control various Christian buildings in Jerusalem and
Bethlehem.
Tsar Nicholas I believed that war
was unlikely, but that he could win if necessary. He also thought
that he could find an ally in Britain because of his trip to London
in 1844. He also thought that he would have the support of Austria
because of the his help in putting down the Hungarian revolt in
1849. Nicholas turned out to be wrong on every front.
The British ambassador in
Constantinople ignored instructions from London, because he was
pro-turkish.
Nicholas’ emissary Menshikov
plucked defeat from the jaws of victory, by asking for more than
Turkey was ready to give.
Austria would not support
Nicholas because it was scared of gaining too much territory it
could not defend, as already experienced in 1848.
Britain, France, Austria and
Prussia tried to write the famous Vienna Note, but the sultan did
not approve and made amendments, to which Russia refused to accept,
and the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.
Ultimately, Nicholas was not a
warmonger, but cared much more about domestic issues, and preferred
peace and the status quo, however obfuscation and miscommunication
created the Crimean War.
#6: In what ways do you think Leo
Tolstoy’s Sebastopol Sketches are personal documents, reflecting the
writer’s attitudes, and in what ways do you believe that they are
social-historical documents, reflecting the fortunes of war? Do you
think that the stories are artistically successful? What artistic
techniques does the author use to try to engage his readers in what
he has to say? In your answer, be sure to differentiate among the
stories appropriately and consider in what ways the stories do or do
not constitute a unified work.
Tolstoy’s Sebastopol Sketches are
both personal documents, as well as social-historical documents.
Sebastopol in December
– writing as if he is a
tour guide guiding you around city. Appeals to the senses of smell, vision,
sound to give you a real taste of the city. He tries to be realistic
and truthful to “you” whom he constantly refers to you who have
“slight doubts as to the validity of the current notions concerning
the defenders of Sebastopol”. You are guided through the very
defenses of the city, and the strange reality that is war. Readers
would be Russians not fighting in the war, so Tolstoy appeals to
them: “it is quite impossible for Sebastopol ever to be taken by the
enemy” “you are convinced that the strength of the Russian people
cannot possibly ever falter”
Beautiful historic legend becomes
reality [...] become[s] a reality”.
Sebastopol in May –
Pacifism:
The
war has dragged on for 6 months... pointless. “the dispute which the
diplomats have failed to settle is proving to be even less amenable
to settlement by means of gunpowder and human blood”. Idea of
trading in quantity for quality, dismiss one solder at a time.
“either war is madness, or, if men perpetrate this madness, they
thereby demonstrate that they are far from being the rational
creatures we for some reason commonly suppose them to be”. – follows the life of an
infantry officer Mikhailov. Obsession to get honors and medals and
advance the ranks of the military. Is vanity what differentiates low
class and aristocrats? “there is also a great deal of vanity to be
found; there are, in other words, aristocrats, even though death
hangs above the heads of aristocrat and non-aristocrat alike, ready
to strike at any moment”. Whole notion of aristocrats is rather
vain, and really ridiculous. “vanity, vanity, all is vanity” “In the
age we live in, are there only three kinds of people: those who
accept vanity as a fact that is unavoidable, [...] those who accept
it as an unfortunate but insuperable condition of human existence,
and those who slavishly and unconsciously act under its influence?”
The realistic impression is made more real by the mixing of
aristocrats with peasants. The death of Praskukhin is presented in
such realism, that the reader can almost feel the “terrible thirst”
that racks Praskukhin.
“It might be supposed
that when these men – Christians, recognizing the same great law of
love – see what they have done [...] will embrace one another with
tears of joy”. But they don’t. Hero is truth. None of the officers
are deserving of being heroes, even the ones who die.
Sebastopol in August – Impressionistic account – seen
through the two Kozeltsov brothers. The older brother is experienced
in fighting, whereas the younger brother has never seen it. “War’s
not at all how you think it is, Volodya”!
Stories represent a unified work
because December is an introduction, May is the body, and August is
the Conclusion.
7. When Alexander II died, his
country went in profound mourning. Discuss the significance of his
reign and of his death, paying special attention to literary and
artistic developments. Judging from the materials you have studied,
do you think that the sociopolitical culture of Russia in the era of
Alexander II and his immediate successor was well understood by
Americans?
Known as 'Tsar Liberator'. Came
to power in 1855. One of the first things Alexander II did was end
the Crimean War. “The new tsar soon accepted that Russia at all
costs needed peace” (Cultural Atlas). The Crimean War was largely
unpopular in Russia, and was accompanied by a loss of influence and
prestige. Alexander also brought the much needed reforms to Russia.
Abolition of serfdom “and other reforms were the most ambitious
attempt to transform Russia’s political and social structure
undertaken before the revolutions of 1917” (Cultural Atlas).
1861 – Abolition of Serfdom.
Gradual and partial emancipation of the serfs over 20 years. The
Russian serfs were never supposed to be slaves, but how could the
landowners be compensated for something they were not supposed to
“own”. The compensation given to landowners differed from province
to province. The peasants were not allowed to own land individually,
since the land was sold to peasant communes. Moreover, the land
prices were fixed by the existing owners. So while the peasants were
free in principle, in practice they were still dependent and
impecunious. “It is better to abolish serfdom from above then to
wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below” –
Alexander II. Also, the peasants were almost completely illiterate,
so the proclamation was rather inaccessible to the very people it
set out to free.
1864 – Administrative reforms –
The government had to change to accommodate the newly freed serfs.
Created the Zemstvo, an assembly and executive board. The new
administrative centers were severely limited, since they had little
power, due to little means of enforcing rules.
1864 – reformed the Russian legal
system. Based on western judicial models. You had to have a public
trial, had the right to legal counsel for defense. Also established
a professional bar, so the laws of the country have to be
accessible, which further led to the rise of the legal profession.
1863-74 – military reforms: The
defeat in the Crimean War demonstrated the need for military reform.
The military reforms instituted by Alexander were considered to the
most democratic reforms of all. Universal conscription with a
shorter term of service for those with higher levels of education,
easier to advance for lower classes.
During the reign of Alexander II,
the reading public grew to larger proportions mostly due to the
development of a larger middle class and better education.
Chernishevsky – What is to be
done? Tells of a new age, with a new future. This book was written
while he was in jail, and even passed by 2 prison censors, which
were supposed to be the strictest.
Tolstoy – War and Peace, Anna
Karenina
Turgenev- Fathers and Children
1862 – popularized word “nihilist”
Dostoyevsky – (involved in the
Petrashevsky affair, and nearly executed.) The gambler 1867, Crime
and Punishment 1866, The Idiot 1868-69, The Devils 1871, The
Brothers Karamazov 1880, Notes from underground 1864.
The Wanderers, a group of 14
students who walked out from the Academy.
Leaders were Kramskoi and
Repin
Ivan Kramskoy
(1837-87)
Ilya Repin
(1844-1930)
Barge Haulers on the Volga – men
are hauling a ship on the Volga. They are clearly seen to be reduced
to the state of animals.
Nikolay Gay – The last supper –
supposed to be conventional, like in western European Christian art,
but Gay’s painting is very unconventional. Emphasis is a kind of
argument for social community. What is sacred is exactly the
community. Gay’s paintings were very controversial, and he was even
excommunicated.
Populism – to the people movement
1873-1874, failed to grip the attention of the peasants. When the
populism movement failed, there was a sharp rise in terrorism, with
the many attempted assassinations of Alexander II himself.
1881 – Alexander was assassinated
by members from the “people’s will” The result of the assassination
was not reform, but massive repression.
The American view is perhaps best
expressed through the political cartoon The Russian Cossack Carrying
Off the Bride of Civilization—Liberty. The Cossack, emblematic of
the force of the Russian government is not fully a man, but a
centaur. This exemplifies the monster aspect, which shows the
governments inhumanity. In America’s eyes, the Russian government
under Alexander was viewed as an oppressive regime, which was
certainly biased in terms of a relativistic view of Russian history.
Looking back from today, it would seem as if the tsarist regime was
oppressive, it is not entirely right to view it in this way. Through
the four reforms instigated by Alexander II, it is clear that the
regime became much less oppressive, and tried to change its ways,
however Americans were blinded with the bias of already living in a
democratic country, and by the little actual information of Russian
conditions. Of the information readily available in America about
Russia, was that of George Kennan, who visited Russian during the
reign of Alexander II’s immeadiate successor Alexander III. Kennan
focused on the penal system in effect in Siberia, which of course
displayed the harshness and severity of its prisoners. Clearly the sociopolitical
culture of Russia under Alexander II and III was misunderstood.
- It
is sometimes suggested that geography has heavily predetermined
the history of Russia What reasons might someone have for saying
this? Do you agree?
The geography has
strongly shaped the history of Russia.
European Russia is
roughly equal in area to all the rest of Europe, although it
has less than ¼ of the
total European population.
Travel:
Rivers offer a very
efficient way of traveling including portages.
Russian explorers
later found lateral river routes to Sibera (including portages)
which were easy to travel since rivers flow south to north. These
routes instigated further expansion to the east – Siberia. Also the
trackless and cold tiaga instigated the fur trade, in which hunters
would travel to Siberia to obtain the valuable animal furs.
Interestingly in this fashion, Siberia was colonized from the north,
and Russians expanded across the Bering Strait into Alaska, and even
to California!
Overland travel is
mostly efficient during the winter across frozen land by sleigh.
Varangians to the
Greeks: the route they took river routes from Scandinavia to the
Byzantine empire for trading reasons. In fact, thanks to the very
geography of Russia, they Vikings established trading outposts, or
settlements in which they eventually became the ruling class of the
early Kievan Rus.
Rivers are also
important as barriers
The geography of
Russia made communication and very difficult. In particular central
government had a hard time when it came to ruling over lands so far
away.
Ex: Vologda, and
Ustyug are both in the same province, yet are an hour and half away
by jet, or a day and a night away by train, and these times are with
modern modes of travel. It can only be imagined what a difficult
time the central authority had in governing over regions so far
away.
The geography of
Russia also effectively determined the system of agriculture that
would be implemented. Shared labor is an integral aspect. The
geography also created isolated settlements which further created a
sense of self-sufficiency among the Russian people, for any peasant
that be self-sufficient would starve during the long winters. This
also bred a culture of resistance to new agricultural methods, since
there was very little margin of error in experimentation with new
methods, when it could easily mean life or death. Interestingly,
this saved Russia during the potato famine that otherwise ravaged
Europe.
Russia was also
geographically blessed with a plethora of lakes and rivers, in which
fish could be caught year-round.
Canada is the country
most geographically similar to Russia, and it has almost no
population at the latitude of Moscow and central Russia.
- Trace
the history of East Slavic expansion (and contraction, if
appropriate) from the homeland of the Slavs to the territory where
Russia is today. What forces drove this expansion?
Russian explorers
later found lateral river routes to Sibera (including portages)
which were easy to travel since rivers flow south to north. These
routes instigated further expansion to the east – Siberia. Also the
trackless and cold tiaga instigated the fur trade, in which hunters
would travel to Siberia to obtain the valuable animal furs.
Interestingly in this fashion, Siberia was colonized from the north,
and Russians expanded across the Bering Strait into Alaska, and even
to California!
attack on
Constantinople by Askold and Dir in 860.
Unification of Kiev
with Novgorod by Oleg – 882.
Mid 960s Svyatoslav
sacked the Khazars’ cities and destroyed their power forever.
Svyatoslav also attacked the Bulgaria, but lost it within several
years.
The Tatar invasion
meant a rapid contraction of independent East Slav territory, as it
joined the Tatar yoke. Noteworthy exception was Alexander Nevsky
defeating the Swedish settlers on the Baltic, and the German
Teutonic knights.
Despite the Mongol
occupation of east Slavic lands, the Orthodoxy was not taxed, and
the monastic movement spread – the founding of numerous monasteries
and hermitages in ever-remoter parts of Northern forests.
-
instigated by Sergius of Radonezh, who came from a family of
Boyars) – he soon attracted other hermits. The monks at Sergius’
Monastery kept founding even remoter ones, and colonizing peasants
followed.
Ivan III
finally ended the occupation of the Tatars in Russia, but without
any real battle. He also attacked Novgorod, and effectively captured
all of it’s lands.
Ivan IV conquered
Kazan and Astrakhan in 1552 and 1556, opening up the doors to
Siberia : “laid the basis for the colonization and annexation of
Siberia, begun by the Cossack Yermak in 1581” (according to The
Columbia Encyclopedia).
Ivan IV in 1558-1563
was victorious against the Germans, but 20 years later Russia had to
give up its gains.
- Pre-modern
(that is 17th century) Russian culture produced
important architectural monuments, which, in their locations,
style, workmanship, and social and cultural functions, reflect the
societies in which they were created. Discuss in detail a few
important examples, comparing and contrasting them appropriately.
architecture in
forest zones - izba – a
cell or series of cells of horizontally laid logs, carefully matched
for diameter, trimmed by the axe, the corners neatly lapped or
dovetailed.
In the south the
house was called akhata
wooden palace at
Kolomenskoye, only the scale model exists. It had 200 rooms total.
None of it survives
today.
1714 – Church of the
Transfiguration on the island of Kizhi in Lake Onega. – built by Nestor, has 22
decorative domes. Kizhi was an important trade parish, trade, and
administrative center. This church was all built out of wood!
St. Sophia – Kiev,
1037 – based on the Byzantine Hagia Sophia (Divine Wisdom) –
exterior is in the baroque style, while inside there are many
frescoes and mosaics, with a “cross-in-square” ground plan.
St. Sophia –
Novgorod, 1043
St. Sophia – Polatsk,
1043
Monastery of St.
Panteleimon – fortress like monastery, where books were translated
and copied, icons painted, ideas exchanged.
St. Demetrius
Cathedral in Vladimir 1194 – exterior human carvings of unknown
origin, inside has many frescoes.
Moscow Kremlin –
built with Italian influence, thanks to Ivan III’s wife being raised
in Italy.
The Trinity Monastery
of St Sergius – metropolis of art and literature, center of culture,
and it’s massive walls even withstood anarchy from the time of
troubles.
- Medieval
Russians used a variety of materials for writing. What were the
most important materials? In what ways did the kinds of writing
they were used for differ? Were they used by different groups of
writers? Give examples, naming important works (or groups or types
of works) you know of, and describing them as fully as you can.
Strips of birchbark
(incised with a stylus) Since WWII, many thousands of birchbark have
been uncovered. The birchbark documents were personal letters or
notes, most often concerning money transactions, debts, legal
claims, landholdings and family matters. These texts show that
literacy was widespread (predated Christianity), and even taken for
granted.
Parchment – sheep
skin, which was what the Primary Chronicle was made out of.
After the religious
conversion of Rus in 988, the religious element predominates.
Sermon on the Law and
the Grace – by first Russian metropolitan of Kiev – Hilarion (mid
11th century)
Instruction – by
Vladimir Monomakh, autobiographical book to his children
Lives – About princes
Boris and Gleb (first martyrs).
Supplication of
Daniel the Captive – more secular than religious work
Tale of the Armament
of Igor (1187) – powerful vehicle for contemporary political
messages.
Epic poems known as
byliny.
Russian primary
Chronicle – Tale of Bygone Years – compiled on the basis of many
previous chronicles. Usually the result of a special commission.
Monasteries were the center of chronicle writing actives. Chronicles
would recount from biblical times up to the current times. Purpose
is to uncover Russia’s identity and historical destiny.
Parchment
Texts were also
incised into walls.
Yaroslav the Wise –
legal code: Russkaya Pravda
Testament – Vladimir
II Monomakh – autobiography and good advice directed to his sons
Tale of the Ruin of
the Russian Land – lamented the Tatar conquest of Russia
Life – inspired by
grand price Dmitriy Donskoy of Moscow
Zadonshchina –
Celebrates the victory at kulikovo and adapts the Igor Tale
Life of Serguis, Life
of Stephen – Epiphanios the wise – poetical, like verbal icons
- Some
analysts have suggested that the mobility of power centers among
the early East Slavs was related to the personal nature of power
in early East Slavic society: the center of power was where the
dominant ruler chose to locate it. Do you agree with this idea?
Consider the history of the following centers: Kiev, Novgorod,
Vladimir-Suzdal, Moscow, Pereyaslavets.
969, The dominant
ruler of Kiev – Svyatoslav decided to shift his capital from Kiev to
Pereyaslavets on the lower Danube. He is quoted saying “since that
is the center of my realm and all merchandise is brought there”.
Judging by the wording, in particular “my”, it is easy to see that
it is a personal power, and that the dominant ruler can locate the
power wherever he chooses. The Byzantine emperor forced Svyatoslav
to leave Pereyaslavets only several years later.
Svyatoslav’s son
Vladimir shifted his power center back to Kiev, and established Kiev
as one of the great European cities.
Princes frequently
shifted their power centers over large distances. There was a
hierarchy of cities, and a succession system from brother to
brother.
Vladimir – founded by
Vladimir II Monomakh – city on the river Klyazma (in the Vladimir
Suzdal principality). This was the beginning of a demographic shift
that would have lasting consequences.
Andrey Bogolyubsky
announced that Vladimir would be his capital, but he kept the title
“grand prince of Kiev” and he sacked the city in 1169.
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